Correspondent, Tom S. kindly sent me some photographs from the 1922 convention with permission to post. The one of J F Rutherford is probably the one with most historical interest.
A photograph of the pierhead where people could go swimming, and from where the baptism took place.
I'm slowly transitioning from yahoo to protonmail. New email is bwschulz [at] protonmail.com. I will continue to check yahoo from time to time until the transition is complete.
If you use yahoo or another service that abuses advertising, protonmail is free and advertising free.
Froom's Prophetic Faith of Our Fathers is available on ebay as complete sets or partial sets. Froom was SDA, but if you research Watch Tower antecedents, you need these.
Anyone writing on Watch Tower history must of necessity cover the death of the first president of the Incorporated Society, Charles Taze Russell. He had been on speaking trip out West in the United States. The last speaking assignment he was able to fulfill was at Los Angeles on October 29 and his travelling companion, Menta Sturgeon, had to deputize for him several times on this occasion. Gravely ill he tried to get back to Brooklyn but died on the train on October 31, 1916.
This article is specifically about the actual
funeral arrangements. There are newspaper accounts of the day of variable
quality, but basically there are two primary sources for the details. One is
the special issue of the Watch Tower for December 1, 1916. This was a memorial
issue, which covered CTR’s life as well as his death and funeral. The other,
probably more interesting today, is the Bible Students’ unofficial newspaper,
The St Paul Enterprise. The editor, William Abbott, attended the whole funeral,
first in New York at the New York City Temple on November 5; then after an
overnight train journey, in Pittsburgh on November 6. In Pittsburgh, Abbott was
at both Carnegie Hall in the afternoon and then at the cemetery at dusk. He
wrote a series of extremely candid and personal letters back to his wife, May
Laura Abbott, about events and personal difficulties he faced. He had
disagreements with certain well-known names in New York and felt he was being
pressured not to publish funeral details before the Watch Tower did. Whether he
originally meant his letters for publication is debateable, but his wife
published them anyway, starting in the November 7, 1916, issue, and thus stole
a march on the special Memorial issue of the Watch Tower.
Most newspapers said CTR died of “heart failure”
which is a bit of a catch-all. Everybody dies of “heart failure,” but what
caused it? He had been failing in health for a while, and according to an
article John Adam Bohnet wrote in the Enterprise for November 14, 1916, for
some time had been unable to deliver a lecture without medication first. The
same article commented that CTR’s father, Joseph Lytle, looked younger and
fitter at the age of 84 than CTR did at 64. Bohnet could make such an
observation because he’d known Joseph personally. Although Bohnet didn’t
elaborate, chronic cystitis was a major factor in the death; a very painful
condition that can sometimes lead to renal failure and sepsis. A letter in the
November 21 St Paul Enterprise from a Samuel Pearson, Congregational Pastor in
Waynoka, Oklahoma where the death was certified noted:
This was confirmed by the Enterprise editor in the
November 14 paper, when he borrowed Bohnet’s desk to write home and “could not
fail to see on the burial permit that the cause of death was given as “Cystitis.””
Returning to Bohnet’s article, he concluded his description of CTR: “He
literally wore himself out in the interest and service of truth and
righteousness.”
CTR’s last will and testament was written back in 1907. In it he wrote: “I desire to be buried in the plot of ground owned by our Society, in the Rosemont United Cemetery.” Whether the exact spot was already mapped out at that early date is not known, but it would not include the grave of William Morris Wright, a former Watch Tower Society director, who had been buried there a year earlier in 1906. The area was further down the hill from Wright’s obelisk, and various plans subsequently took shape. In 1912 a Memorial pyramid was mooted for the center of the special site, and then came the first burial in 1914 at one of the corners. Then of course, CTR died and was buried there in 1916. Finally, the pyramid monument was completed in early 1920.
It was reported that CTR had chosen his own burial spot, in the middle of the top row of the site. There was speculation as to who might eventually be buried next to him. Ultimately, his sister Margaretta Russell Land was interred alongside him.
A number of photographs were taken on the day of the funeral and just before.
The first photograph is looking down the hill over
the site of the grave. The superintendant’s office (the old Weibel farmhouse),
where Bohnet lived at the time, is clearly seen. Two small grave markers can be
seen in the grass. These were for Bible Students Arabella Mann and Mary Jane
Whitehouse and their graves mark the bottom edge of the special Society plot in
the cemetery. The three large headstones in front of the house are not marking
actual graves, but were there for dispay and purchase.
The next picture is very poor quality because it is taken from the front page of the St Paul Enterprise newspaper for November 21, 1916. It is captioned: Grave of Pastor Russell, Showing House of Bro. Bohnet.
Then the picture below was dated November 6, the day
of the funeral, but obviously was taken quite early in the day.
There is a grave to the right of the picture, actually from the row in front. This would be the grave for John Perry, who died in December 1915. His grave marks the side edge of the Watch Tower’s special section in the cemetery.
Another photograph shows, amongst others, John Adam
Bohnet, the main cemetery supervisior in its history and Andrew Pierson who
looked after the floral arrangements.
Bohnet is on the right, his familiar bald head covered by a hat, and Pierson is second from the left with the goatie beard. John Perry’s grave can again be seen in the right of the picture.
Several photographs were then taken of the final
stages of the funeral, which happened as dusk approached. First, there is the
actual grave in readiness. The figure facing the camera is most likely John
Adam Bohnet again.
Second is a photograph of some of the crowd of people as they waited for the coffin to approach.
Finally we have the coffin arriving. The light was
now fading. There is only a short time between the previous photograph and this
one.
A key point to note about the above photograph is that it appears to include CTR’s estranged wife, Maria.
It was stated in the 1975 Yearbook (page 68) and repeated in the Proclaimers book, that Maria Russell came to the funeral service at Carnegie Hall in Pittsburgh. Quoting from the 1975 Yearbook:
‘Anna K. Gardner, whose recollections are similar to those of others present, tells us this: “An incident occurred just before the services at Carnegie Hall that refuted lies told in the paper about Brother Russell. The hall was filled long before the time for the services to begin and it was very quiet, and then a veiled figure was seen to walk up the aisle to the casket and to lay something on it. Up front one could see what it was—a bunch of lilies of the valley, Brother Russell’s favorite flower. There was a ribbon attached, saying, ‘To My Beloved Husband.’ It was Mrs. Russell. They had never been divorced and this was a public acknowledgment.”’
A similar account can be found in the Watchtower magazine for October 1, 1994. In a life story account from someone else who attended the funeral, the author wrote:
“Sara Kaelin, a well-known colporteur in Pittsburgh, knew the Russells personally. At the funeral she saw Maria Russell place some flowers in the casket with the note, “To My Beloved Husband.” Though she had separated from him some years earlier, Maria still recognized him as her husband.”
The
Russells’ marital difficulties are not the subject here, but it should be noted
that they were never divorced in the sense of a
complete dissolution of a marriage. Legally this is called a vinculo
matrimonii (abbreviated to a.v.m.). This might help us
understand Anna Gardner’s perception. The
action taken by Maria was something different, officially called a mensa et thora (divorce from bed and
board, or a.m.t.) which is defined as “a legal separation.” (See Grounds and Defenses to Divorce in Pennsylvania and by Robert A.
Ebenstein, in the Villanova Law Revew Volume 15, issue 1 (1969) article 8.)
Newspapers loved the word “divorce” when linked to a religious figure, far more then than today, but using the word “divorce” for the Russells without qualifying what is meant could be misleading. The a.m.t. arrangement was far easier for a wife to achieve because it was very one-sided, her own conduct was not questioned, but it allowed neither party to ever remarry. CTR and Maria remained legally tied together. Extra support seems to have been Maria’s motivation. CTR continued to have financial responsibilities towards her, because an a.m.t. allowed her to seek permanent alimony. A “divorce” in the usual sense of the word would not have allowed Maria to pursue him for more money, which she continued to do even after his death if the Brooklyn Eagle newspaper is to be believed in its byeline for November 29, 1916.
.
The Eagle characterizes “Mrs Russell” as the “wife” not the “ex-wife.” However, all we are really concerned with here is proof that Maria, perhaps with happier memories of times past, attended part of the funeral.
This testimony of the above witnesses at Carnegie Hall is also reinforced by William Abbott’s letters home to his wife. In the St Paul Enterprise for November 14 (page 3) he wrote:
“At
the grave, two heavily veiled ladies followed the coffin, one on the arm of
Brother Pyles of Washington, the other on the arm of another brother – I think
it was Brother Driscoll. One of the ladies was Mrs Russell – a widow indeed and
I shed a tear for her.”
This
is supported by the last photograph. Although it was getting dark because of
the time of day and time of year, one can make out the two veiled figures. They
are identified with two arrows in this selective enlargement.
The second veiled figure was probably Maria’s sister Emma, the widow of Joseph Lytle Russell. The two women had lived together on and off since the turn of the century and would continue to do so until Emma’s death in 1929.
John Adam Bohnet supervised the lowering of the coffin into the grave. It was buried in its outer packing case, and the whole incased in cement. This was managed by Andrew Pierson who also supervised the extensive floral tributes.
The
funeral took place in November 1916. It was to be nearly four years before a
permanent marker for CTR was erected for his grave. A temporary marker was in
place for a photograph in a 1919 convention report. In February 1920, The New
Era Enterprise newspaper (the former St Paul Enterprise) reported that a permanent
memorial stone was in production. It was certainly in place by 1921 because it was
featured on the cover of the program of the Watch Tower Society’s annual meeting
in Pittsburgh in late October of that year.
The picture that would eventually appear on the front of the grave marker was given away as a supplement to the Watch Tower magazine with its issue of November 1, 1918.
Visitors today will see a different picture on the gravestone. Vandals have chipped out the picture on more than one occasion over the years, and the current replacement photograph today is not the same as the original one.
Night photograph courtesy of WAHT Publishing Company
Due to vandalism, the photograph on the rear of the stone has also been replaced on more than one occasion, but always with the same picture.
Addenda
I have been asked about the photographer, William Roy Mitchell. Mitchell (1867-1934) was a Bible Student whose business address was 619 S Broadway, Los Angeles. Below is a sticker from a Manna book for him.
The May 1902 date refers to his becoming a Bible Student. Mitchell produced a number of studio photographs of CTR at different times, and also at least one photograph of J F Rutherford.
Long time researcher and friend of this blog, Bernhard Brabenec, has produced a complete book on the Bible House of Allegheny, the first custom built headquarters of the Bible Students. It is over 130 pages in length and profusely illustrated with diagrams and photographs. Below is a graphic of the cover along with a facimile from part the foreward.
The foreward gives good reasons for owning this volume. The history of the first custom built headquarters for the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society has a lot of interest for anyone who is ever likely to read this blog. Who worked there? A comprehensive list is provided taken from city directories over its 20 year history. What were the various offices like and how did they work? Familiar photographs are provided with a clarity many will not have seen. Some are colorized, and others provide names of the specific workers. There are photos of the first Watch Tower directors and the personal histories of C T Russell’s private secretaries. The building was so large that initially some space was rented out to businesses, some connnected with the Bible Students, some not. These are described. Gradually the work expanded to take over the whole building and prompt a move to Brooklyn. The building survived until the 1960s and its post-1909 history has Bible Student links. So the book contains all of this, and more.
I can sincerely recommend it to all. Links are notoriously unstable, but if you go to Amazon for your particular country, use the search terms "The Bible House in Allegheny, Pittsburgh, PA" or "Bernhard J. Brabenec". The Amazon site will allow you preview some of the pages, which will give a better idea of the book than this review can.
Bernhard has produced several books of interest. Another recent one is the Photo Album of Charles Taze Russell. This is nearly all photographs, the best copies available and that is reflected in the price of this volume.
Bernhard has also written a very detailed
history of the Bible Students in Austria. Unfortunately the latter is only
available in the German language at present. But if you follow the trail to Amazon
for the Bible House book you will also find links to these other works.
supplied by Moses G.
The Camden-Post newspaper (Toledo, Ohio) for
February 2, 1914, carried the story.
First, the venue was generally called Burts Theater, in Toledo, Ohio. Here is a postcard from that era showing it.
It still exists today. Here is a more recent photograph of the venue.
Most likely attendiing that very early showing was a
young colporteur, Walter Kessler from Auburn, Indiana, who wrote a letter to
Wayne Brooks from Oil City, Pennsylvania. Moses has a collection of letters
stretching from 1905 to the 1940s, showing these men and others working as
colporteurs, working in the Bethel Home, and also working with the Photodrama
of Creation.
Walter lived from 1892 to 1973.
The letter relating to the Photodrama indicates that
maybe Walter was one of those in the photograph of the people in front of the
theater in the original post. It is dated February 27, 1914.
Returning to his 1914 letter, it is full of news about different individuals and thus is a store of information about names from the past. One hopes that Moses can make more of this material available at some time.
One final thought from his letter. He mentions a Brother Higbe from Toledo using his auto to advertise the Photodrama. Perhaps it looked like the model in this 1914 photograph.
I can't afford this at all. But for those of you who have the money and want it, it is on ebay.
https://www.ebay.com/itm/1661-Very-Rare-Personal-Reign-Of-Christ-On-Earth-John-Archer-Millennial-Reign/324346108405?hash=item4b8488d9f5:g:FE0AAOSwp7Zfkygn
It is also on google books, though only in sections.
Longish conversation with a brother, fellow researcher today. This is my follow up email.
Dear Brother ****,
You asked how I became interested in Russell era history, but the conversation drifted away from your question leaving it unanswered. We attended the Awake Ministers Convention in Tacoma, Washington, in 1959. Jehovah’s Witnesses in the Divine Purpose was released there. I started reading it as soon as we returned to our hotel room, developing an interest that never waned.
I had previously read the history series appearing in the 1955 Watchtower and the brief section in Qualified to be Ministers, but while they were interesting they were not as captivating as the JP book. As I’m certain you know Divine Purpose has many footnotes. I did not own most of the referenced material, but an older sister, Esther Stout, did. It came to her from a much, much older sister whose letters to Rutherford appear in Watch Tower issues from the 1930s. Esther loaned me bits of her library, eventually giving most of it to me.
I started writing up my research, producing a book-length thesis in the late 1960s. It was not well done, but access to resources was very limited. One resource that was available were my older companions in the truth. Our small congregation, then the lone group in this area, was populated by many who had been Witnesses from the Russell or Rutherford eras, and they were willing to tell stories. I was willing to listen, and as I could I followed up leads. Brother Luther Allen – he and his parents came into the truth in 1905 through reading Russell’s newspaper sermons - told me of attending a meeting in the Finley School House, just outside of Kennewick, Washington. I found a reference to it in an old issue of The Watch Tower that gave me the date and speaker’s name. Pilgrim N. W. Wisdom spoke on The Yellow Peril and Armageddon. Finding a newspaper notice in the long-defunct Kennewick Courier Reporter gave me the topic.
Research was an adventure before the Internet was invented and for many years thereafter. The Internet has many treasures; having it at hand has eased research quests, but one must still follow the faintest hint to move forward. Also helpful has been the willingness of many to gift me with older publications. So today I have a nearly complete set of The Watchtower back to 1896 as original issues, and, of course the reprints made in 1920. I also have a complete run of Awake! and Consolation and a nearly complete set of The Golden Age.
My current history series started with an article intended
for a Methodist history magazine. It quickly grew past the publication’s
parameters and turned into Nelson Barbour: The Millennium’s Forgotten
Prophet. I continue to research and
write, though as my health deteriorates that task becomes more difficult. So
that’s the basic story.
... but I don't. You may find this useful. Sale ends soon.
https://www.ebay.com/itm/A-COMMENTARY-ON-THE-APOCALYPSE-HORAE-APOCALYPTICAE-4-VOLUMES-1847-SCARCE-SET/333606376473?hash=item4dac7d5419:g:IpIAAOSwP79eyTEB
Guest post by Gary
Previous studies involving the response of early Bible Students to militarism in World War One have usually concentrated efforts on the leading figures of the movement or those who forged a path as conscientious objectors. In both instances the protagonists have been male. However, recent work by Jay Beaman, a sociologist with an interest in ‘Christian Pacifism’ from the Warner Pacific College in Portland, Oregon, reveals that female Bible Students in the United States played a significant role in promoting a theology which became increasingly unwelcome when the country joined the war. Drawing on his extensive database, Beaman noted that “what was surprising, besides the ability to gather notes on 1,890 persons of the IBSA faith, was the large number of women in the data, and the specific nature of the conflict with the larger society which had placed them in significant peril.”
Using
this data, and in response to the recent suggestion by historian Zoe Knox, this
article makes a start in enabling these lesser known “voices of ordinary Bible
Students who suffered as a consequence of their anti-war convictions” be heard.
Their comments are often brief, consisting of those repeatedly followed by
Government agents investigating their activities and consequently working to
their own agenda. But their experiences
speak loud and clear.
___________________________________
In early April 1918 a Mr Evans entered the Estate Agents office of Cynthia Belle Scott, a 47-year old of Seattle, Washington. He said he needed a five roomed accommodation to house his family. While Scott searched for the details, we can imagine him glancing at a headline in a newspaper he holds and expressing some concern at the war and state of the World, perhaps questioning 'where it all is leading to?' As she finds the details he requests, she agrees that these are indeed "'perilous times' just as the Bible foretold" before going on to highlight some good aspect of the house chosen. At this point, Evans appears to lose interest in the house and asks her what she meant when she said these things were foretold? Evans listens intently to her reply and occasionally interjects enquiring whether she thinks the war being fought in Europe is wrong, and how she feels about those fighting in it? How does she view President Woodrow Wilson? What does she think about Patriotism and what will be the fate of America if the Kingdom she predicts comes about?
After the discussion Scott offers a time to show Mr Evans the house but he politely declines. Despite his seeming interest, Evans never intended to purchase a house but visited with an ulterior motive. Evans was one of the hundreds of patriotic men and women who had volunteered to police fellow citizens suspected of having pro-German tendencies and who therefore might be considered a threat to national security. He had started to investigate Scott following a tip-off from a local lay preacher named D.H.Mothern. Mothern had reported a conversation he alleged to have had with Scott a few weeks earlier in which, he believed, Scott made seditious statements indicative of her pacifist and pro-German sympathies. At the time Mothern warned Scott that "you will be liable to get arrested for saying those things", to which Scott surprisingly replied, "Well we expect to get arrested."(1)
Scott's expectation wasn't realised. Unlike Emma Martin, mentioned in an earlier article, she did not get arrested. However, elsewhere throughout the States at this time, other women of like mind and heart and of all ages faced similar challenges. One source alone lists 36 named female adherents involved in incidents. Of these, 7 faced vigilante mob action, 11 experienced house raids and 15 were arrested, of which 10 were imprisoned, the earliest known to have been a Mrs C.L. Knowles, from Bogosha, Oklahoma. (2) This list also included Fay R. Smith, from Marshfield, Oregon, who as a result of a complaint by two Presbyterians was jailed for twenty-four days and, as a result, lost her employment.
A different story, but also illustrating the effects of prejudice, involved Madeline Clausen, a young daughter working at the French Battery and Carbon Company at Madison, Wisconsin. Given the alternative to buy a war bond or quit, she chose the latter and subsequently aroused suspicion and investigation, along with her family, for her decision. (3) Being interrogated concerning their beliefs and religious literature by self-appointed citizens with well-intended patriotic sympathies was unpleasant enough, but it pales into insignificance compared to the experience of others who faced not only government agents but also local vigilante groups excited by and working in league with such individuals. Accounts from the period of women being hounded and run out of town occurred in a number of locations. For instance, at Mammoth Spring, Arkansas, on 30 April 1918 Minna B. Franke was mobbed and compelled to close out a $10,000 stock in one day and leave town. (4) At Fontanelle, Iowa, Etta Van Wagenen was forcibly driven out of town, (5) while at Bandon, Oregon, Edith R. Smith was run out of town with her son Walter, who was in naval uniform at the time having returned home on furlough. (6)
“Distributing Promiscuously”
As can be imagined, if possession of literature connected to the faith of these women was cause for concern, when some started to proselytise and share this literature, alarms bells started ringing. One incident, amusing in part, involved a report of two young women "distributing promiscuously copies of the Kingdom News" in Fort Worth, Texas. Government agents had gone to question them only to find that by the time they arrived the suspects had cunningly left the area using a Ford automobile. The matter was reported to the local Police Chief. Several police cars were hurriedly dispatched, presumably with sirens blaring, in chase of the women. The vehicle was intercepted, and the suspects apprehended and taken to the police office. Upon investigation by Police Chief Porter the women were found to be to Lela F. Woodward and Irene Hertzog. The Police Chief naturally insisted on knowing who had told them to do such a thing in Fort Worth and noted that "these ladies are very smart and attempted to evade guilt by making the statement that the Lord had told them to distribute these papers." Needing to be seen to be firm, he reported that "I reprimanded them very severely in a gentlemanly manner." In this way, what might otherwise have been seen by some as a couple of housewives on an afternoon jaunt chatting with a few neighbours somehow became the subject of a sinister plot, danger and criminal melodrama. (7)
A "very old lady ... not at all vicious"
Another who attracted considerable attention from the authorities was a 76-year-old widow named Sarah Story, apparently a native of Missouri but spending considerable time in Monroe, Louisiana in March 1918. While here she would chat with local people about the Bible and distribute The Finished Mystery and other IBSA literature with anybody suitably interested. These books were left with those willing to pay for the cost of publication. However, Story also generously left the book with any who were interested but unable to pay due to financial hardship. Apprehended on 4 March 1918 the congenial Story explained clearly her opinion that she "could not see any wrong or harm whatsoever in the circulation of this book" and consequently she saw no reason, including the threat of arrest and imprisonment, why she should stop her ministry. In a scene reminiscent of Miss Marple, confusion reigned as her gentle but assured disposition disarmed the local authorities who seemed unable or unwilling to deal with this out-of-towner who they must have hoped would soon leave them undisturbed. In time she is assumed to have returned to Missouri. But her case rumbled on until March 1919 when the authorities decided that it was unlikely that any jury would ever possibly convict her in a court of law. The decision not to take further legal action concluded that she was a "very old lady ... not at all vicious" but "a little abnormal in her religious belief." In fact, she shared the same belief as many other females victimised and intimidated across the United States during this period. In terms of disposition she was peaceable like others. Why then let her off? By this time the war had ended it wouldn't look good to press charges against such a gentle soul who reminded so many of their favourite Auntie. (8) Having a slightly whacky, but aged, relative was excusable; after all, did not 'Uncle Sam' himself fit just such an image? (9) It was thought better to simply label Story as well meaning, though somewhat dotty.
Fending off the “'beast of the field' upon whom the wrath of God would surely be visited”
Although lacking the gentle disposition of Story, another aged, but equally resilient, Bible Student was Lula Jackson of Fort Worth, Texas. Her home was visited twice by Sheriff Rodgers to demand surrender of Bible study textbooks. But she apparently rose to the challenge calling him a religious persecutor and “'beast of the field' upon whom the wrath of God would surely be visited” and while she admitted having a copy of The Finished Mystery, she said that “it was her religion and that she defied the whole United States to take it from her." The Sheriff may not have been quite so determined and decided that, in view of the fact she was so old and frail, it was best not to arrest her. (10)
Gertrude
Antonette Woodcock Seibert’s attachment to the Bible Students was well known. An entry from the Woman’s Who’s Who of America says
she was an active member of the IBSA and credits her for writing the Daily Heavenly Manna for the Household of
Faith, a Bible Student publication offering daily texts on Scriptural
themes and various poem books supported by her art works. Seibert was under
investigation by a Federal Agent on 10 May 1918 who resided in the same hotel
as her in New York to track her movements. He called her “one of the leaders of
the above Society,” a term that - had she known it - would have amused her.
Bible Students didn’t tend to think in terms of rank and even if some did, she
held no presumption to being such and, indeed as the Woman’s Who’s Who of
America account stated, she was “opposed to suffrage on scriptural
grounds.” (11)
But what caused females of all backgrounds and ages to be the focus of such vigilant and even vigilante attention from individuals who in normal circumstances might be considered as paragons of virtue? Each of these women held one faith in common. In earlier days the name Millennial Dawnists became common, while critics labelled them 'Russellites' after Charles Taze Russell, the leading figure in the movement. (12) By 1910 they identified themselves as members of the International Bible Students Association, a name they retained until 1931 when they took on the name more familiar to most, Jehovah's Witnesses. (13) Central to Bible Student thinking was the teaching of the Kingdom of God which would bring untold blessings to mankind after a period of considerable distress culminating in the battle of Armageddon. The thought comes across in the Lord's Prayer which includes reference to "Thy Kingdom come, thy will be done on earth, as it is in heaven." However, the idea finds its roots in Old Testament where Daniel speaks of a time when God would set up a Kingdom that would never be brought to ruin and that would destroy man made governments which have always ultimately disappointed. (Daniel 2:44) The Bible explains these have always fallen short because “it is not in man that walketh to direct his steps” successfully. (Jeremiah 10:23). (14) For an authority to hear such words expressed concerning some unexpressed time far off probably isn't unduly worrying, especially when it has no reason to expect its own tenure in government to last beyond the next election. However, based on his understanding of chronology and scripture, since as far back as 1876 Russell had been highlighting the year 1914 (15) as significant, so much so that no Bible Student was surprised when the gunshots of Sarajevo led to World War One. It mattered not to the American government whether Russell's understanding was right or wrong, but at a time when they were mobilising every available citizen to support their "war for righteousness," any political, philosophical or religious elements that taught otherwise were an annoyance they could have done without.
In his first book, The Divine Plan of the Ages, published in 1886, Russell reminded believers that neither Jesus nor the apostles interfered with earthly rulers in any way. "On the contrary, they taught the Church to submit to these powers, even though they often suffered under their abuse of power. They taught the Church to obey the laws, and to respect those in authority because of their office, even if they were not personally worthy of esteem; to pay their appointed taxes, and, except where they conflicted with God's laws (Acts 4:19; 5:29), to offer no resistance to any established law. (Rom. 13:1-7; Matt. 22:21) The Lord Jesus and the apostles and the early Church were all law-abiding, though they were separate from, and took no share in, the governments of this world." (16) As a result, Russell explained that those “who aspire to office in the coming Kingdom of God, should neither covet the honors and the emoluments of office in the kingdoms of this world, nor should they oppose these powers. They are fellow citizens and heirs of the heavenly kingdom (Eph. 2:19), and as such should claim only such rights and privileges under the kingdoms of this world as are accorded to aliens." (17) Considering themselves as aliens and temporary residents in this world, the Bible Students 'otherworldliness' enabled them to give their entire attention and effort to preaching the Kingdom of God. "If this is faithfully done, there will be no time, nor disposition to dabble in the politics of present governments. The Lord had no time for it; the apostles had no time for it; nor have any of the saints who are following their example." (18)
In addition to the avoidance of politics, female Bible Students held to the New Testament understanding of male headship and consequently held no aspirations of holding oversight in the Bible Classes that swiftly arose from Russell's teachings. However, this is not to say that they served little purpose within the Bible Student movement. Zion’s Watch Tower of 1881 held the headline "Wanted, 1,000 preachers" and invited committed readers, male and female, to serve as Colporteurs devoting their time to the harvest message at a time when "the opportunity for seeking the prize of the high calling to joint heirship with Christ ... is soon to end." (19) It seems unlikely that Russell's target was quickly met, since many male adherents had business responsibilities and sometimes large families to provide for which kept them busy no matter how zealous they were for their newly acquired faith. However, female readers of Zion's Watch Tower, especially those middle class, single and without dependent children, had more time, opportunity and often greater zeal than their male counterparts. Consequently, whereas the nominal churches gave little opportunity for female preaching, the Watch Tower message gave them free reign to express their faith publicly. Further the non-political emphasis of the Bible Student message kept them focused on religious themes while other capable women of the time were minded toward temperance, prohibition, female suffrage and emancipation.
Women who choose the path advocated by Russell, such as Emma Martin, gained a tremendous sense of purpose and satisfaction in their life since in their preaching they considered themselves as serving as "ambassadors for Christ" himself. (20) Indeed, such a ministry, they believed, was preparing them for their future employment as kings and priests in Christ's heavenly Kingdom. (21) Watch Tower articles were quick to stress that zeal spent in such public ministry was not cause for a Christian to boast, and that none could ever earn their salvation through works, since this was only possible as a result of God's undeserved kindness through Christ. (22) Yet, at the same time it seemed only natural that as spirit begotten Christians these individuals would not want to hide their light under a bushel, but rather would unselfishly share with others the grace they had received.
Consequently, acceptance of Bible Student teachings placed all believers on the margins of American Society. (23) This was not a difficult place to be before the war, and even during the years 1914 to March 1917 when President Wilson had exhorted Americans to display political neutrality "in word and deed." But when the nation moved to become an avid war participant from April 1917 onward, this changed everything. Suddenly, to be on the fringe of American society placed members in an extremely uncomfortable position: one in which they could barely be tolerated. Exempt from this vulnerability, perhaps, was the 48-year-old Colporteur Emma Martin, who had lost in death both her child in 1910 and her husband in 1916. There seemed little further she could lose through keeping quiet about her faith and, from her perspective, everything she could gain. For the vast majority, however, life in America, especially in Spring 1918, proved quite an ordeal. Yet, delicate though it was, their theology had already prepared Bible Students for just such an eventuality, as we shall see. It was for precisely for this reason that Cynthia Scott had said, "well we expect to be arrested."
But what led to Emma Martin being convicted of sedition while individuals like Cynthia Scott and Sarah Story remained free? As has been said, sedition - like beauty - often appears to belong in the 'eye of the beholder.' As is common at times of national crisis, the authorities thought it necessary to make an example of some members of society so as to intimidate and discourage others, while individuals found it useful to prove their Americanism by stigmatising those less committed. The incident involving Martin gave those seeking to find it precisely the opportunity they wanted. No investigation as to the motive of those reporting Martin's activities was deemed necessary. Unlike Story, Martin was in her late forties and not 76 years old. While no more determined, perhaps her disposition was deemed belligerent by those in authority, unlike the sweet, but dotty, Story. In the case of Scott, her investigation did not involve The Finished Mystery book and reached a very different conclusion than was the case with Martin. In compiling his report, Evans also visited and listened to Scott's accuser, Mothern, for over an hour, in fact. Evan's explained that Mothern was employed as a day watchman at the Meecham-Babcock Shipbuilding Company. "He is obliged to sit in one place out at the end of a dock, where he commands a good view of the yards and his entire time is spent brooding and suspecting everybody that appears on the horizon. ... He is still labouring under a lot of Stone Age ideas ... and he attempts to enlighten the people. His main argument over and over was that" people who believed as Scott did "were absolutely wrong because they did not believe as he did ..." (24)
Evans stated that Mothern "was not reporting Mrs Scott for her alleged remarks, which he could not prove, as much as he was attempting to get her under the limelight" for holding the belief she had. Evans summed up his findings by saying that he found Mrs Scott "very broad minded and entirely in accord with the Government except that their faith could not kill; but would suffer death if called upon to do so. They are being persecuted by people who know nothing of Pastor Russell's work." Interestingly, Evans went beyond his brief in simply investigating Scott and concluded that he believed that "this entire opposition to the belief of the I.B.S.A. is the direct work of the clergy of Orthodox churches." (25) A similar conclusion was reached in Ray Abram's classic Preachers Present Arms. (26) It continues to be the explanation of Jehovah’s Witnesses to this day.
References:
(1) IBSA MID-FBI data file 170884
(2) The Golden Age, issue 29 September 1920, 712-717. There can be little doubt that the list included some of the most notorious incidents of IBSA prejudice experienced. Even so, when compared with Government records now available from World War One involving wholesale spying and investigation of individuals from the group it becomes apparent that, at the time, the IBSA knowledge of such surveillance was limited and that the The Golden Age list represents no more than a snapshot of what was going on. Indeed, it seems apparent that rather than exaggeration, the faith has under-estimated the extent of its unpopularity during this period and recorded merely the tip of the iceberg.
(3) IBSA MID-FBI data file 204882.My thanks are due to Jay Beaman for drawing attention to these valuable files and his remarkable work.
(4) The Golden Age, issue 29 September 1920, 713
(5) Ibid, 715
(6) Ibid
(7) IBSA Old German Files (OGF), FBI 63296, 1-999, 253
(8) Sources for Story’s account include the National Civil Liberties booklet entitled War Time Prosecutions and Mob Violence, 23, IBSA NARA DC RG60 #114 and various local and national newspapers.
(9) See Christopher Capozzola’s description of James Montgomery Flagg’s iconic image of American government in Uncle Sam Wants You – World War 1 and the Making of the Modern American Citizen, 4-5
(10) FBI OGF 63296, 2nd File, 953
(11) Woman’s Who’s Who of America for 1914-1915. WWI US FBI OGF. Jay Beaman records ID 92625
(12) Jehovah’s Witnesses - Proclaimers of God’s Kingdom (1993), 150
(13) Ibid,151. The name was adopted by resolution at the Columbus International convention on 26 July 1931.
(14) All scriptural quotes are from the King James Version.
(15) Per the article by Russell in October issue of Bible Examiner.
(16) The Divine Plan of the Ages, 266
(17) Ibid
(18) Ibid, 267-268
(19) Zion’s Watch Tower, April 1881, 7 [Reprints, 214]
(20) Quote from 2 Corinthians 5:20
(21) Revelation 5:10, Galatians 3:28
(22) See, for instance, Zion’s Watch Tower November 1884 article entitled ‘Faith and Works.’ 5, Reprints, 688
(23) This is a development of the idea expressed on pages 93 & 94 in Gerhard Besier’s keynote lecture at the 2016 Glasgow conference Faith and the First World War,entitled ‘Harmonizing Conflicting Demands and Emotions – Christian Believers During the First World War’. Besier based his comments on Bible Students in World War One Germany. The idea is also implicit in the title of Emily Baran’s study of Jehovah’s Witnesses in the Soviet Union, entitled Dissent on the Margins: How Soviet Jehovah’s Witnesses Defied Communism and Lived to Preach About It.
(24) IBSA MID-FBI data file 170884
(25) Ibid
(26) Preachers Present Arms, 183-184
